Effects, Causes, and Mitigation Strategies for Climate Change

 Effects, Causes, and Mitigation Strategies for Climate Change

Sana Zulfiqar Ph.D. Scholar

National Institute for Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering

laureatefolks@gmail.com

 

1.      INTRODUCTION

 

1.1.What is Climate Change?

The emission of greenhouse gases due to several natural and anthropogenic activities results in a change in weather components (precipitation rate, high temperatures) which is called climate change. As a result, excessive heat is absorbed by the Earth’s surface ultimately leading to global warming. The main source for emission of these gases includes human activities like burning of fuels, a-forestation, and release from natural systems like oceans, volcanoes, forest fire, etc. (Yue & Gao, 2018). At present this huge change in climatic conditions is attaining attention at a global scale as the whole world either developed or undeveloped is suffering from its negative impacts. The concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere such as carbon dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, and methane gas has become high during recent years (IPCC, Climate Change 2014). 

Among all types of gases the release of carbon dioxide due to burning fossil fuels along with some other gases like methane, chlorofluorocarbons are prime reasons for producing global warming. The major constituent of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is carbon dioxide, contributed 65% by fossil fuels and 11% by forest fires and some other resources (IPCC, Climate Change 2014). An increase in carbon dioxide gas emission has been observed in the near past (Abeydeera et al., 2019). Furthermore, with an increase in industrialization, the release of carbon dioxide gases (nitrous oxide, methanol, etc.) in the atmosphere has been increased drastically. As a result, the global temperature has become very high and is expected to increase by 4.4°C by the end of 2021 (NASA Earth Observatory, 2020).

The increase in global temperature is the result of the greenhouse gas effect caused by the emissions of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Many reactive gases, mainly carbon dioxide gas and ozone along with water vapors capture energy from the outer atmosphere and surface of the earth, thus causing a huge increase in the overall temperature of the Earth. The temperature of the Earth has increased 2 folds the temperature of the ocean. Excessively high temperature in the polar region has been resulted in the melting of glaciers, due to which global temperature has become high (Richie & Roser, 2020). Keeping in view the current scenario, the emission of greenhouse gases should be controlled to save this planet of Earth.

1.2. Risks and Threats of Climate Change

The current situation of changing weather patterns poses drastic impacts on both human beings as well as natural ecosystems. A detailed study was conducted to analyze and evaluate the variability present in various weather components like humidity, temperature, rainfall as well as acidification in the ocean, and sea-level change. That report also surveyed the drastic impacts of these changes on human society and natural systems. According to that survey, it was summarized that heavy rainfalls/floods, drought, thunderstorms, cyclones, and wildfires were all consequences of changing climatic conditions (UNCCS, 2019). In another study, it was reported that there during 2018, there were 315 disasters that occurred naturally, a huge proportion of them were the outcome of changing climate. Several cases of natural disaster were reported including drought (16 cases), heat waves (26), cases due to shortage of food (127), land sliding (13 cases), heavy storms (95 cases), and wildfires (10 cases). Due to these disasters, there was a 131.7 $ loss in the economy. According to CRED reports, there was a huge increase in the rate of calamities as compared to the previous years and a resulting loss in the economy was also higher that is a much alarming situation (CRED, 2019).

Moreover, among all-natural disasters wildfires are a direct source of emission of carbon dioxide gas in the atmosphere. Although wildfires are part of the natural system it is evident that emissions caused by human activities are exaggerating the extent of natural resource emissions. The change in climatic components caused by the activities of mankind is the prime driving force of most of the natural calamities and disasters occurring on a global scale.

1.3.Climate Change at Global Scale:

The current situation of global warming and varying climatic patterns is projected to be even more critical in the upcoming era. During 1901-2015 an obvious increase of approximately 1 inch was noticed in the precipitation rate on the surface of Earth (www.ourworldindata.org). Due to global warming, an increase in the rate of precipitation as well as the temperature has been observed. Moreover, global food security was also at stake because of global warming.

Furthermore, irregularities in rainfall also pose negative effects on the agriculture sector, especially in developing countries. Interestingly, farmers in developing countries increased their farmlands to compensate for the losses in production caused by abnormal weather conditions (Zaveri & Russ, 2020). In addition, the agriculture sector was also influenced by the increase in global temperature due to the excessive release of carbon dioxide gas into the atmosphere. Unlikely, yield losses in major staple crops including wheat, maize, and rice were reported to be reduced with a rise of one degree in mean global temperature (Deutsch et al., 2018). In addition, fish demand would be increased at the end of the year 2050, which could be a potential threat to global food security (Dey et al., 2016).

2.      CAUSES BEHIND CLIMATE CHANGE:

There are several causes of changing climate. One of the major forces behind climate change is the greenhouse gas effect. The concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is increasing at an alarming rate during recent years. Several kinds of anthropogenic as well as natural activities result in the release of harmful gases in the atmosphere, resultantly the overall temperature of Earth’s surface has been increased (Stern & Kaufmann, 2014). Furthermore, the emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and methane has become the source for the depletion of the ozone layer ultimately global temperature is rising day by day. Among many other sectors agriculture is attributed to 15% emissions of lethal gases mostly in the form of oxides of nitrogen. Moreover, livestock contributes the maximum amount of greenhouse gases (8–10%) under the agriculture sector. In livestock, emission of oxides of nitrogen, burning of fossil fuels, manufacturing and disposal of fertilizers, organic manures, etc. are the main components behind the emission of greenhouse gases. The use of nitrogenous fertilizers also causes the release of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Thus, the major cause behind changing climate is the excessive release of lethal greenhouse gases and depletion of the ozone layer.

3.      EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE

3.1. Climate Change and Agriculture

The current rate of climate change at a global scale has never been seen in human history before. Harmful and devastating effects of these changes in climatic patterns can be observed in many aspects; however, impacts on agriculture are crucial as agriculture fulfills the basic necessities of human beings by providing food and feed. Nonetheless, the origin and development of agriculture paved the way for the growth of civilization. Agriculture provided a sustainable supply of food as well as economic resources for resource-lacking farming communities in many underdeveloped and middle-income countries. The variations in climatic patterns impose a serious threat to the world’s food security by negatively impacting the agriculture industry. Resultantly, the global world is suffering from problems of malnutrition which is increasing at a very faster rate. Despite the harmful effects of climate change on agriculture, agriculture also stands among the major sources of emissions of greenhouse gases in the outer atmosphere and harmful activities.    

Agriculture sector act as a basic income source in many developing countries of the world where people rely only on agriculture for their basic needs of life. It is also the most vulnerable industry to changing climatic conditions. The drastic effect of changing climate on agriculture has become a serious issue a global scale because of the large size and susceptibility of agriculture towards climatic anomalies which ultimately results in huge economic constraints worldwide. The current rate of increase in severity of changing weather patterns has to pose negative impacts on the farming system.

On a global scale, the farming community suffers from heavy rains, excessive flooding, infestation of insects and pests, a water deficit period, and changing market rates. Hence, local farmers facing the problem of climatic anomalies are in search of innovative approaches and strategies to combat the negative impacts of varying climatic conditions. Because of the devastating impacts of changing climate on agricultural yields feeding a large world’s population is a challenging task (World Population Review, 2020). On a global scale, the cropping land should be expanded by almost 60% to fulfill the needs of food of the large population (Aexandratos & Bruinsma, 2012). The world’s food security is at risk due to current changing climatic patterns and their negative impacts on the agriculture industry.

Varying patterns of weather like high temperatures and unexpected rainfalls have a strong influence on the productivity of agricultural crops. The impact of change in weather patterns depends upon the region, type of crop, and the degree to which a specific factor under target is changing. The productivity of a crop is affected by climatic components and depends upon the adaptability of the crop, its type, the effect of carbon dioxide fertilizers (Karimi et al., 2018). Most importantly, high heat stress is reducing the crop yield, however, a high rate of precipitation is expected to compensate for the high heat stress on the crops. In addition to high heat stress and excessive rainfall changing climate, results in water shortages, loss of fertility of the soil, and attack of pests and insects on crops (Baul & McDonald, 2015). The production of major staple crops likes maize and wheat has also been decreased due to the negative influence of climate change on agriculture (Zhang et al., 2017).

Some earlier reports have studied and documented the association between agricultural crops and the release of carbon dioxide gas; natural gas and renewable energy; and use of energy and economic growth (Dong et al., 2018; Rauf et al., 2018; Chandio et al., 2019). Moreover, the climatic variable also results in many abiotic stresses like salt stress, drought stress, high heat stress, and frost (Malhi et al., 2020). The drought stress is directed to be a common phenomenon in upcoming yeas in many regions of the world, with a huge increase in weather stressed acreages by the end of 21^st century. In water deficit regions the yield of many crops is expected to be declined by more than half. However, modifying the concentrations of carbon dioxide can compensate for the yield losses due to drought stress.

Changing climate imposes huge impacts on tropical regions as crops in such places suffer from high heat stress due to direct exposure to high temperatures. In the Netherlands, extreme weather has become common and resulted in substantial yield loss in wheat crops. The extent of reduction in wheat yield was estimated during intensive weather conditions (Powell & Reinhard, 2016). Moreover, variation and reduction in agricultural productivity depend upon crop growing patterns and environments (Deryng et al., 2016). In the case of non-legumes (C3 crops), the nutrient concentration was reduced with increasing levels of carbon dioxide. In the rice crop, a high concentration of carbon dioxide enhanced the reproductive as well as vegetative growth at 29°C ambient temperature (Madan et al., 2012).  In the case of leguminous C3 crops, the contents of iron and zinc are decreasing with increasing concentrations of carbon dioxide, imposing bad impacts on the health of human beings. Likewise, protein concentration was also reduced in C3 plants with increased levels of carbon dioxide however C4 crops remained unaffected by high carbon dioxide concentrations (Myers et al., 2014).  In contrast to negative effects, changing climate also renders some positive influences on crop yields. However, these impacts are region-dependent and could not have large impacts.

3.1.1.      Effect of Changing Climate on Weed Growth

In addition to crop yield, the growth and infestation of weeds have also been increased with varying climatic patterns. In wheat, a very high infestation of weeds was observed which decreased the wheat yield and resulted in the issues like food security on a global scale (Bajwa et al., 2020). The growth of weeds in C3 plants is increased with a high concentration of carbon dioxide. For C4 plants, there is profound growth and competition of C3 weeds, however, in C3 crop plants, there is less competition of C4 weeds (Korres et al., 2016). The weed plants compete for nutrients and water with crop plants as they demand more nutrients and water as compared to the crop plants (Malhi et al., 2020). Changing climate has a potential role in the dynamics of weed and crop competition. Due Owing to the effects of changing climate weeds are growing in new regions that can be only controlled by devising new strategies. Moreover, the efficiency of herbicides is badly affected by changing climate because herbicides’ mode of action has been changed (Varanasi et al., 2016).

3.1.2.      Effect of Changing Climate on Insect-pests

The present changing climatic condition does impose effects on the development and survival of different pathogens infesting different crops (Elad & Pertot, 2016).  It is expected that insect pest infestation on various crops is going to be severe because the increasing rate of precipitation, humidity, and temperature favor the growth of pests. However, pest attacks vary according to the region as well as it depends upon the adaptability of pests towards prevailing climate conditions. Furthermore, climate change also impacts the seasons for the growth and development of pests and synchronization between pests and crops. Novel strains of pests are evolving with changing weather patterns. Several pests migrating from one place to another are also increasing the rate of invasion of pests on crop plants.  

In addition, changing climate is predicted to minimize the efficacy and efficiency of methodologies adopted for plant protection likes the development of host plant resistance, use of transgenic plants, artificial poisons, control by natural enemies, and biopesticides (Reddy, 2013). Hence present changing climatic conditions and global warming may cause unprecedented associations between weather patterns and pests infestations (Lamichhane et al., 2015). Likewise, the susceptibility and vulnerability of various crops towards insects attack are also expected to increase with a change in climatic patterns of a particular region. Comparatively higher yields are expected in countries present at higher latitudes as compared to the countries present at low latitudes. Nonetheless, there are 10-15% yield losses with a 1ºC rise in temperature (Shrestha, 2019). 

The abiotic components of the climate like temperature, precipitation, and humidity have a strong impact on the population of various kinds of pests, hence varying climate has the potential to increase the growth and migration rate of insect pest populations. Under the prevailing climatic conditions currently, the infestation of aphids on the wheat crop which is one of the emerging threats has been increased (Aljaryian & Kumar, 2016). There was an outbreak of more than 30 new species of insect pest due to changing climate (Hof & Svahlin, 2015).

The rate of development and metabolism was expected to be disturbed by a change of climate particularly in temperate regions (Deutsch et al., 2018). In addition to various insect pests changing climate patterns also influence the bacterial populations and their rate of metabolism in the soil. It was observed that in tunnels with 5°C temperature the growth of bacteria was significantly higher as compared to the growth in field conditions. At a high temperature the growth of various nodules forming and P-solubilizing bacteria was substantially higher (Kaur et al., 2014).

3.2.Effects of Climate Change on Ecosystem/Biosphere

Changing climate also affects the biosphere linked which is a protective sheath outside Earth, linked with atmosphere and hydrosphere, act as a shelter for all life forms on Earth. This factor is majorly dependent on territories and regions. Along with the biosphere, ecosystems are influenced and evolving with changing climatic patterns. All elements of climate such as temperature, precipitation, amount of carbon dioxide have effects on the ecosystem. However, the extent of adaptability and sensitivity of various ecosystems toward the varying climate depends upon the interaction of individuals and organisms present at that time in the ecosystem. Recently, the effects of climate variation on ecosystems were surveyed. The role of different communities and ecological factors in deciding and shaping the fate of any ecosystem under changing climate was elaborated (Bardgett & Caruso, 2020).  

We are shaped and changed the ecosystem by several activities like hunting, forest cutting, large infrastructure construction, burning of fossil fuels, since several million years ago (Jones et al., 2018). All human activities which are the source of greenhouse gas emissions in the atmosphere have put the stability of the ecosystem at risk. The temperature of the earth has increased significantly due to greenhouse gas emissions (Bardgett & Caruso, 2020). Likewise terrestrial ecosystems climate change also influenced the marine ecosystems. Stratification has increased due to high temperatures in temperate oceans (IPCC, 2013). Furthermore, at higher altitudes, the intensity of sunlight reaching the ocean surface has increased because of the low cover of ice (Wasmund et al., 2019). For maintaining a sustainable balance between human activities and the ecosystem a complete understanding of the impacts of different climatic components on the ecosystem is needed.

4.      STRATEGIES FOR MITIGATING THE EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE

4.1. General Strategies

Several strategies are adopted for mitigating and controlling the harmful effects of changing climatic conditions. Among conventional approaches, carbon emission reduction strategies such as sequestration, storage of carbon, use of nuclear and sustainable energy are adopted to reduce the harmful emission of carbon dioxide gas in the atmosphere. Many of these are manageable and established and also pose less risk (Victor et al., 2018; Bustreo et al., 2019). There are several methods adopted for sequestration and capturing carbon dioxide gas from the atmosphere. In addition, some other techniques are also used such as capturing and storing carbon from bioenergy, capturing and storing carbon from direct air, improvement in alkalinity of the ocean, fertilizing oceans, a-forestation, and construction of freshwater resources. Lastly, controlling solar radiation is another approach to maintain the radiation balance of the earth. The basic idea of these approaches is stabilizing and maintaining temperature. These approaches are called radiative forcing geoengineering approaches and are completed without disturbing the number of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

4.2. Strategies related to Agriculture

As the agriculture sector is facing severe and harmful effects of climate change there is a dire need for devising useful strategies to overcome the effects of climate change and to minimize the yield losses in agriculture. The perception of conventional and local farmers about the intensity and risk of varying climate is a key factor for mitigation of climate change. If a local farmer is well aware of the risks and vulnerabilities then the implementation of different techniques becomes quite easy.  Hence, farmers can adopt and implement climate-resilient practices by adopting conventional as well as agro-ecological management techniques like bio diversification, use of soil protection methods, recycling water resources, etc. (Altieri & Nicholls, 2017). Moreover, some adaptive strategies such as resource conservation, rotation of crops, Resource-conservation techniques, crop rotation, and social-economic or policy initiatives are the three main adaptation techniques for the mitigation, Increased carbon sequestration, the better quality of soil, reduced erosion of soil are the outcomes of aforementioned strategies which ultimately result in sustainable agriculture and food production under the challenges of climate change.

The efficacy of all strategic approaches depends upon the individual’s perception and adaptability towards these approaches. For example, most farmers go for an adaptive approach however a small number of farmers are in favor of technologies leading to the reduction in emission of greenhouse gases. Therefore it can be concluded that mitigation and adaptive strategies should be combined to overcome the harmful effects of climate change (Arbuckle et al., 2015).

 The farmers with small holdings are unable to cope with climate change because of less information so they face more liabilities. They adopt several agronomic practices like sowing date modification, no or zero tillage, and drip irrigation to overcome the changes in climate. In addition, local farmers also adopt some emission techniques like improved cattle nutrition, improved nitrogen use efficiency, etc.

The adoption and use of any technology depend upon the farmer’s perception of the effects of varying climatic conditions. Finally, to mitigate the drastic effects of climate change conservation agriculture can be deployed. It reduces the emission of greenhouse gases, use of fertilizers as well as increases the absorption of carbon in the soil (Pisante et al., 2014). However, the adaptability of this approach could be influenced by many factors such as an individual’s perception about the advantages and benefits, the market’s strategies for exchange, and incentives given to farmers, etc. (Brown et al., 2018). 

So, it can be concluded that major tools for adaptation to changing climate are improved technologies for farming which are strongly dependent upon policymakers along with the political, social, and economic factors.

4.3.Climate Smart Agriculture

The concept of climate-smart agriculture facilitates the adaptation to changing weather patterns by deploying several water-smart uses, nutrient smart use, weather smart, and carbon smart use approaches. It improves the adaptability towards changing climate by improving local organizations and by taking climate-friendly measures (Lipper et al., 2014). Those approaches which deliver a high amount of water, nutrients and improve soil structure are most reliable.

The Indo-Pak region is severely affected by adverse climate especially wheat and rice crop are badly affected in this area. The local farming community has shown keen interest in climate-smart agriculture practices so that conventional farming could be changed into highly productive methods (Taneja et al., 2019).

5.      Future Prospects

Changing climate has drastic effects on agriculture sector mainly. Global security has been at risk due to the adverse effects of climate. But the harmful effects of climate on various sectors are unforeseen and can be predicted at very higher rates. There are several mitigation strategies and approaches adopted for mitigating its effects.

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